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http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/profile.v19n2.57428
Formulaic Language and EFL Requests: Sensitive
Wording at the Right Time
Lenguaje formulaico y peticiones en inglés: formulación
apropiada en el momento oportuno
*
Gerrard Mugford
Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
I examine whether teaching formulaic language raises English as a foreign language learners’ awareness
of pragmatic resources when expressing requests. To carry out this research I adopt a qualitative self-
reflective approach which encourages students to use formulaic language when making requests. By
responding to discourse completion tasks, learners were given the opportunity to reflect on whether the
use of formulaic language enhances their ability to come across in acceptable and appropriate ways. Results
indicate that by developing learners’ knowledge and via the use of pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic
resources, students at all levels have a much greater chance of achieving their communicative objectives
and of becoming more pragmatically competent in the target language when making requests.
Key words: English as a foreign language, formulaic language, pragmatics, requests.
Examino la enseñanza de lenguaje formulaico para expresar peticiones con el objetivo de aumentar
los recursos pragmáticos de los alumnos de inglés como lengua extranjera. Para llevar a cabo esta
investigación adopto un enfoque cualitativo y auto-reflexivo que alienta a los estudiantes a utilizar el
lenguaje formulaico para expresar peticiones. Al responder a textos con situaciones discursivas, los
estudiantes tuvieron la oportunidad de examinar si el uso de lenguaje formulaico mejora su habilidad
para interactuar en formas aceptables y apropiadas. Los resultados indican que al desarrollar sus
conocimientos y el uso de recursos pragmalingüísticos y sociopragmáticos, los estudiantes en todos los
niveles tienen una mayor probabilidad de alcanzar sus objetivos comunicativos y de ser pragmáticamente
más competentes cuando expresan peticiones en la lengua meta.
Palabras clave: inglés como lengua extranjera, lenguaje formulaico, peticiones, pragmática.
* E-mail: gerrymugford@yahoo.com
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How to cite this article (apa, 6 ed.): Mugford, G. (2017). Formulaic language and efl requests: Sensitive wording at the right time. profile
Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 19(2), 29-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/profile.v19n2.57428.
This article was received on May 14, 2016, and accepted on December 3, 2016.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
4.0 International License. Consultation is possible at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
PROFILE VPROFILE Vol. 19, No. 2, July-December 2017. ol. 19, No. 2, July-December 2017. IISSSSNN 11665577--00779900 ((pprriinntteedd)) 22225566--55776600 ((oonnlliinnee)).. BBooggoottáá,, CCoolloommbbiiaa.. PPaaggeess 2299-- 39 2929
Mugford
Introduction Literature Review
This paper was motivated by the observation that In this section I define and discuss the concept of
my English as a foreign language (efl) students’ use of formulaic language in terms of conversational routines
the target language inside and outside the classroom in and I outline the importance of formulaic language in
Mexico reflects, by and large, grammatical accuracy in developing fluency in the target language.
making requests, but lacks contextual sensitivity. For
instance, when wanting to talk to a teacher, students Formulaic Language
often start the conversation in the following way: The use of formulaic sequences are widespread
• “I have a question…” in language use and covers a wide range which,
• “I want to ask you something…” following Carter (1998) and Wray (2008), includes
• “I need to talk to you…” idioms, collocations, proverbs, catchphrases, quotations,
• “I have a problem…” idiomatic similes, and discoursal expressions such as
social formulae (e.g., How’s it going?) and structuring
Without determining whether the addressee is devices (e.g., Let’s get started!). Formulaic language is,
available or willing to comply, students run the risk of therefore, an umbrella term that refers “to the larger
being seen as imposing before they have even had a units of processing—that is, lexical units that are more
chance to formulate the request itself. than one word long” (Wray, 2008, p. 3). However, such
In order to raise my students’ awareness of the a definition reveals little about the pragmatic dimension
potential problem when formulating requests and of formulaic expressions as language users construct
exploring possible options, I presented a class of 26 and convey communicative meaning.
advanced language students with eight situations where To embrace the pragmatic dimension in “fixed and
they were asked to frame a request. They were not semi-fixed multi-word phrases (or lexical chunks),”
given any previous instruction on making requests Thornbury and Slade (2006) differentiate between lexical
and were free to answer in any way they wanted. The phrases and conversational routines. They contrast lexical
answers revealed that the students often failed to convey phrases, which are “multi-word items that constitute
appropriate levels of consideration, indirectness, and a single grammatical unit (such as a verb, noun, or
politeness. Consequently, through classroom instruction, adjective) but have no specific pragmatic function,”
I presented learners with pragmatic resources for (pp. 62-63) with conversational routines which convey
conveying requests. In a follow-up class, learners were pragmatic information contained in “fillers, discourse
asked to respond to the same situations with the aim of markers, utterance launchers, tags, expletives etc.” (p. 63).
ascertaining whether they now came across in politer Conversational routines reflect a socio-interactional
ways. However, rather than correcting the learners’ work, function (Thornbury & Slade, 2006) which can be key
I asked them to compare their own answers before and to successfully making requests. As argued by Aijmer
after instruction and reflect on which answers conveyed (1996), requests can be conveyed through a range of
greater sensitivity and appropriateness. I argue that this strategies including ability (e.g., could you…), willingness
is a more effective way of raising students’ awareness (e.g., will you…), and want (e.g., I want you…). However,
than the teacher providing feedback on the correctness request strategies cannot solely rely on grammatical
of learners’ answers. functions. They also need to be tempered by politeness
30 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Formulaic Language and EFL Requests: Sensitive Wording at the Right Time
strategies depending on the addressee and the context. communicative competence is not so much a matter of knowing
Politeness may adopt one of the following strategies: rules for the composition of sentences and being able to
• The use of a question instead of a declarative appropriately employ such rules as it is “knowing a stock of
sentence. partially preassembled patterns, formulaic frameworks, and a kit
• The choice of a suggestion rather than a request. of rules, so to speak, and being able to apply the rules to make
• The choice of modal auxiliary. whatever adjustments are necessary according to contextual
• The choice of subject. demands”. (p. 135)
• Giving reasons for doing something rather than
stating one’s wishes abruptly. This argument places formulaic expressions in a
• Softening the force of an impassive speech act. strong position for helping to develop communicative
(Aijmer, 1996, p. 138) competence in the target language. Carter and McCarthy
(1997) argue that “fixed expressions play an important
Formulaic language can provide foreign-language part in spoken language in particular in maintaining
users with ready-made pre-fabricated expressions and establishing relationships and in reinforcing shared
(Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992) so that they can fluently knowledge and social conventions, and referring to
negotiate such face-threatening acts (Brown & Levinson, common cultural understandings” (p. 15). Furthermore,
1987) as making a request since this may threaten the Thornbury and Slade (2006) argue that knowledge of
face (Goffman, 1967) of the addressee. formulaic expressions helps efl users to save time when
communicating or even to gain time when formulating
Formulaic Language, their utterances.
Pragmatics, and EFL
An essential aspect to achieving communicative Developing Pragmatic Resources
competence (Bachman, 1990; Canale, 1983) in the target Making a request potentially threatens the face of
language is the development of pragmatic competence. the respondent (Brown & Levinson, 1987) as it intrudes
LoCastro (2012) defines pragmatic competence as “the on the addressee by potentially limiting his/her freedom
knowledge that influences and constrains speakers’ of action (Cohen & Ishihara, 2010; Márquez Reiter,
choices regarding use of language in socially appropriate 1997) and exposes the requester to possible rejection.
ways” (p. 307). Pragmatic competence is key to In order to maximise the possibilities of success, the
formulating appropriate requests in the target language requester needs to show thoughtfulness, justification
because interactants need to know what acceptable and for making the request, and a willingness to compensate
permissible choices are in a given context. the respondent on an appropriate occasion in the future.
Giving learners formulaic expressions helps them This can be achieved by minimising the level of intrusion
to develop appropriate request strategies and saves by employing mitigation, avoiding imposition through
them time in having to construct a request strategy the use of indirectness (Leech, 2014), and boosting the
every time they wish to make a request. Furthermore, face of the respondent through rapport enhancement
Widdowson (1990) argues that formulaic expressions (Spencer-Oatey, 2008).
“figure so prominently in competence, it does not seem Whilst the teaching of requests has largely
reasonable just to disregard their existence and leave concentrated on practising correct structures (e.g., the
their learning to chance” (pp. 95-96). Nattinger and use of the modals can and could), efl teachers often fail
DeCarrico (as cited in Widdowson, 1989) argue that to alert learners to the basic motivations behind request
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 2, July-December 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 29-39
31
Mugford
strategies which stem from “neg-politeness” whose The use of these pragmatic devices allows target-
“function is mitigation, to reduce or lessen possible language users to minimise potential offence when
cause of offense” (Leech, 2014, p.11). Therefore, when conveying requests and this may need to be explained
formulating requests, efl learners should be made aware to efl learners.
of how to express consideration, give a justification,
enhance the face of the respondent, and convey gratitude. Research Framework
This can be done in the following ways: To understand how formulaic expressions can
1. Demonstrating consideration. This may be direct or help efl users construct appropriate requests, I adopt
indirect and involves recognising that the requester a qualitative research approach that aims to build on the
is taking up the addressee’s time, asking whether he/ pragmalinguistic resources (Leech, 1983; Thomas, 1983)
she is available and presupposing his/her willingness that the learners already employ to convey requests.
to comply. Consideration can be expressed checking I try to raise their awareness of whether they were
on availability: Can you give me a second? (direct) and employing pragmalinguistic resources appropriately
Are you busy at the moment? (indirect); preparators: or not. Furthermore, Thornbury and Slade (2006) argue
I need you to do me a favour (direct) and I would that an underuse of formulaic language leaves efl users
really like to ask you something (indirect); getting “relying on their grammatical knowledge to generate
a pre-commitment: Please don’t say no (direct) well-formed but essentially unidiomatic language” (p.
and Is there any chance of you doing me a favour? 219). Therefore, my underlying research question is: Can
(indirect); and minimising the imposition: This will efl users be encouraged to use formulaic expressions
only take a minute of your time (direct) and I know to develop and reinforce the appropriate use of request
you are a really busy person (indirect) (Ishihara, strategies?
2010; Spencer-Oatey, 2008).
2. Focusing on the reason behind the request as the Language of Description
speaker aims to achieve compliance through the In order to construct a language of description to
use of grounders: I came away from home without evaluate whether students improved their performance
my wallet; downgrading the imposition: I see you in making requests, I adopt Leech’s (1983) and Thomas’s
are not using your calculator at the moment. Any (1983) use of pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic
chance of using it? (Spencer-Oatey, 2008). resources. Pragmalinguistic resources reflect the different
3. Boosting the face of the respondent through ways of carrying out a speech act. This may range from
rapport enhancement by making the addressee using direct or indirect language to using softeners
feel good (Lakoff, 1973). This can be done through and intensifiers (Kasper & Rose, 2001). Meanwhile,
sweeteners: if there is someone I can always count sociopragmatic resources are used to implement the
on for help; and everyone says you’re the right appropriate use of pragmalinguistic resources in a given
person to ask. context, taking into consideration, for example, the
4. Showing willingness to compensate by promising to interpersonal relationship, the level of closeness/distance,
pay the respondent back: Just ask me any time, and and degree of power (Kasper & Rose, 2001).
I’ll help you with anything you need; by displaying The use of formulaic expressions provides prag-
indefinite gratitude: I will be eternally grateful; by malinguistic resources for making requests. However,
offering actual payment: I’ll pay you for your time these need to be used in ways that are appropriate,
(Ishihara, 2010; Spencer-Oatey, 2008). sensitive to the addressee, and applicable to the context.
32 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
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