exam focus
                Stress and anxiety
                MMaannaaggeemmeenntt  tteecchhnniiqquueess                                                                                                                                                                                                        Thought-stopping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Involves the athlete ‘blocking out’ negative thoughts and 
                UUssee t thhiiss p poosstteerr t too h heellpp y yoouu r reevviissee t thhee d diiffffeerreenntt t teecchhnniiqquueess f foorr m maannaaggiinngg s sttrreessss a anndd a annxxiieettyy                                                            images. This technique tends to be effective for people with                                 Control appraisal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  high state (SC state) and trait confidence (SC trait). It is likely 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  that this strategy is suited to extroverted performers, who are                              Changing the locus of control concerning 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  less prone to high anxiety than introverted performers during                                performance from external factors (e.g. luck 
                             ccording to Martens et al.                                                                                                                                                                                                           performance (Jarvis 2006).                                                                   and task difficulty) into internal attributions 
                             (2000), the capacity to control                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   (e.g. ability, effort and attitude). This will 
                Aemotional and physical reactions                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              reduce state anxiety while combating learned 
                encountered in stressful situations is a                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       helplessness and promoting mastery 
                key difference between elite and poorer                                                     Progressive muscular                                                                                                                                                                                                                               orientation to optimise sports performance.
                performers. Superior athletes can control                                                   relaxation (PMR)                                                                                                        Imagery
                arousal and anxiety when required to                                                                                                                                                                                Involves creating a mental vision of success 
                perform under pressure. It is believed that                                                 A somatic technique devised by Jacobson (1929). The                                                                     or a positive outcome. This technique can be                                                                                       Mindfulness
                modifying or manipulating thought patterns                                                  method requires the athlete to create tension simultaneously                                                            adopted from an internal perspective. Players 
                is central in controlling reactions to stress.                                              in all muscle groups. Each muscle group is then slowly                                                                  visualise themselves performing the skill as                                                                                       Anxiety is often induced or increased through 
                    Stress management techniques can be                                                     relaxed in turn.                                                                                                        if physically undertaking it at the time. The                                                                                      apprehension about the future and worry 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    advantage of this practice is that a feeling of                                                                                    about the past. For example, a goal kicker, 
                divided into two categories.                                                                                                                                                                                        the skill can be experienced. This is known 
                ■  Somatic techniques, which focus                                                                                                                                                                                  as kinaesthetic imagery. Imagery concerning                                                                                        having missed several conversions, may 
                attention on physical factors.                                                                                                                                                                                      the sporting environment can be part of this                                                                                       become anxious about subsequent attempts. 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    process, e.g. visualising the stadium.                                                                                             Mindfulness is a complete focus on what is 
                ■  Cognitive techniques, which concern                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Cognitive                                               happening in the immediate present while 
                changing thought patterns.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             eliminating any thoughts or emotions outside 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             techniques                                                of this time. Mindfulness can take the form 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       of meditation. The technique has recently 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Goal-setting                                                                                                                       increased in popularity and has strong links 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       with the achievement of flow state.
                                                                                                                             Somatic                                                                                                Implementing performance or task goals to 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    minimise state anxiety. These are targets of 
                  Biofeedback                                                                                           techniques                                                                                                  self-improvement focusing on process and 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    skill learning. Avoid product or ego goals. 
                  A somatic anxiety management technique                                                                                                                                                                            Such goals involve winning and surpassing                                                                                       Mental rehearsal
                  that involves monitoring the physiological                                                                                                                                                                        others. Short-term goals build confidence and 
                  changes that take place in the body as anxiety                                                                                                                                                                    are measures of immediate reinforcement and                                                                                     A form of imagery with direct focus given to 
                  increases. An electrocardiograph displays the                                                                                                                                                                     instant gratification. Long-term goals may be                                                                                   skill execution.
                  pattern of heart rate, which would reflect a                                                                                                                                                                      perceived as daunting and a negative stressor. 
                  quickening trend with the onset of anxiety. It                                                                                                                                                                    They involve deferred gratification.
                  is believed that observation of this trace can 
                  help a performer to control heart rate and 
                  therefore reduce anxiety.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Rational thinking
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Positive self-talk                                                       Reflection on thoughts and feelings regarding a specific skill 
                                                                                                                  Centring                                                                                                                                                                                                         or situation. It helps the athlete to logically evaluate both the 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          This method engages the performer in private                             situation and possible outcome. This process works well for 
                                                                                                                  Centring or refocusing refers to many different                                                                                         verbal encouragement. This endorses their                                a performer who is confident, experienced and conscious of 
                                                                                                                  techniques for quickly regaining concentration during                                                                                   ability or progress in a challenging situation                           previous success. The inexperienced participant or one lacking 
                  Key terms                                                                                       competition. The aim is to bring the level of arousal to                                                                                and dissipates self-doubt.                                               in confidence would be unable to make a logical evaluation.
                                                                                                                  a preferred point within the space of one deep breath. 
                  Learned helplessness  A belief that failure is                                                  Concentration can be regained and be centred on 
                  inevitable, with the athlete having no control                                                  the issues that are fundamental to performance (see 
                  over the outcome.                                                                               catastrophe theory, pp. 12–15).                                                                                                             PEReviewExtras
                  Mastery orientation  A belief that success is                                                                                                                                                                                               Download this poster at                                                  John Ireland is an experienced teacher and author of a 
                  possible with control of the outcome.                                                                                                                                                                                                       www.hoddereducation.co.uk/pereviewextras                                 range of A-level PE teaching and learning resources
                16                                                                                                                                                         PE Review September 2019                               www.hoddereducation.co.uk/pereview                                                                                                                                                      17