Foundational (K-12) Education System: 
           Navigating 21st Century Challenges 
         
              Hitendra Pillay (Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia) 
                  Brajesh Panth (Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines) 
                               May 2022 
                                                                
                                  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO license  
                                  (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 IGO) 
                 
                Copyright © 2022: Asian Development Bank and Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, 
                Australia  
                 
                Asian Development Bank                              Queensland University of Technology 
                6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City                      GPO Box 2434 
                1550 Metro Manila, Philippines                      Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia 
                www.adb.org                                         www.qut.edu.au 
                 
                ISBN: 978-1-925553-31-4 
                DOI: 10.5204/rep.eprints.226350 
                 
                This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO 
                license (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/igo/. By using the 
                content of this publication, you agree to be bound by the terms of this license. For attribution 
                and permissions, please read the provisions and terms of use at https://www.adb.org/terms-
                use#openaccess. 
                This CC license does not apply to non-ADB or non-QUT copyright materials in this publication. If the 
                material is attributed to another source, please contact the copyright owner or publisher of that source 
                for permission to reproduce it. ADB and Queensland University of Technology cannot be held liable for 
                any claims that arise as a result of your use of the material. 
                ADB and Queensland University of Technology do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in 
                this publication and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The mention of specific 
                companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by 
                ADB or Queensland University of Technology in preference to others of a similar nature that are not 
                mentioned. 
                By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the 
                term “country” in this document, ADB and Queensland University of Technology do not intend to make 
                any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.
                                                                                   
                Note: ADB recognizes “the USA” as the United States (US). 
                                                 
                 
         Acknowledgments 
         This commissioned report was prepared by Prof Hitendra Pillay of Queensland University of 
         Technology and Dr Brajesh Panth of Asian Development Bank. The work was supported through    
         ADB grant CMS# 021219.  
                          
          
                
             Table of Contents 
               Executive Summary                                                                      iii 
                   Recommendations                                                                    iv 
               1: Background and Context                                                               1 
               2: What to Learn: Knowledge, Skills and Disposition for 21st
                                                                           Century                    4 
               3: What Children Currently Learn in K-12                                               7 
               4: Learning Progression Pathways                                                      10 
               5: Assessment / Examination                                                           13 
               6: 21st Century School Teachers                                                       15 
                   Teacher Quality and Supply                                                        15 
                   Teacher Development Programs and Training Institutions                             17 
               7: Principals and Education Managers for 21st                                         21 
                                                             Century K-12 Education 
               8: Teaching and Learning Resources                                                    24 
               9: Governance and Management                                                          27 
               10: Infrastructure and Learning Space                                                 30