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NEGA NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF WILDLIFE TOURISM ON WILDLIFE
BRISBANE
Tourism Engineering,
Design and Technology Research TIVE
Dr David Lockington
Ph: 07 3365 4054
DARWIN CAIRNS d.lockington@uq.edu.au EFFECTS
Northern Territory Node Cairns Node IT & Informatics Research
Coordinator Coordinator Dr Pramod Sharma
Ms Alicia Boyle Prof Philip Pearce Ph: 07 3365 6513
Ph: 08 8946 6084 Ph: 07 4781 4762 p.sharma@uq.edu.au OF
alicia.boyle@ntu.edu.au philip.pearce@jcu.edu.au Sustainable Tourism Services
Mr Stewart Moore WILDLIFE
Managing Director
Ph: 07 3211 4726
sts@crctourism.com.au
Education Program Coordinator
Dr John Fien TOURISM
Ph: 07 3875 7105
j.fien@mailbox.gu.edu.au
GOLDCOAST ON
Chief Executive
Prof Terry De Lacy WILDLIFE
Ph: 07 5552 8172
t.delacy@mailbox.gu.edu.au
Conservation and Environmental
Management Research
Prof Ralf Buckley
Ph: 07 5552 8675
r.buckley@mailbox.gu.edu.au
By
PERTH ADELAIDE Ronda
Western Australia South Australia Node
Node Coordinator Coordinator
Prof Jack Carlsen Prof Graham Brown LISMORE Green
Ph: 08 9266 1132 Ph: 08 8302 0313 Centre for Regional
CarlsenJ@cbs.curtin.edu.au graham.brown@unisa.edu.au Tourism Research
Prof Peter Baverstock and
CANBERRA Ph: 02 6620 3809
Industry Extension Coordinator MELBOURNE pbaverst@scu.edu.au Karen
Mr Peter O’Clery SYDNEY
Ph: 02 6230 2931 Director of Research
poclery@iprimus.com.au Prof Leo Jago New South Wales Higginbottom
Australian Capital Territory Ph: 03 9688 5055 Node Coordinator
Node Coordinator Leo.jago@vu.edu.au Mr Tony Griffin
Prof Trevor Mules Ph: 02 9514 5103
Ph: 02 6201 5016 tony.griffin@uts.edu.au
tjm@comedu.canberra.edu.au LAUNCESTON International Program
Tasmania Node Coordinator Co-ordinator
Prof Trevor Sofield Dr Johannes Bauer By Ronda Green and Karen Higginbottom
Ph: 03 6324 3578 Ph: 02 6338 4284
trevor.sofield@utas.edu.au jbauer@csu.edu.au
WILDLIFE TOURISM RESEARCH REPORT SERIES: NO. 5
Status Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series
RESEARCH REPORT SERIES The Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism was established under the Australian
The primary aim of CRC Tourism’s research report series is technology transfer. Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Program to underpin the development of a
The reports are targeted toward both industry and government users and tourism dynamic, internationally competitive, and sustainable tourism industry.
researchers. The content of this technical report series primarily focuses on Our mission: Developing and managing intellectual property (IP) to deliver innovation to
applications, but may also advance research methodology and tourism theory. business, community and government to enhance the environmental, economic and social
The report series titles relate to CRC Tourism’s research program areas. All research sustainability of tourism.
reports are peer reviewed by at least two external reviewers. For further information DEVELOPING OUR IP 5. Post graduate education
on the report series, access the CRC website, [www.crctourism.com.au]. Director of Research - Prof Bill Faulkner Coordinator – Dr John Fien
1.Tourism environmental (j.fien@mailbox.gu.edu.au)
Wildlife Tourism Report Series, Editor: Dr Karen Higginbottom management research 6. Centre for Tourism and Risk
This series presents research findings from projects within the Wildlife Tourism Co-ordinator – Prof Ralf Buckley Management
Subprogram of the CRC. The Subprogram aims to provide strategic knowledge to (r.buckley@mailbox.gu.edu.au ) Director – Prof Jeffrey Wilks
facilitate the sustainable development of wildlife tourism in Australia. • Wildlife Tourism (j.wilks@mailbox.uq.edu.au )
• Mountain Tourism 7.Centre for Regional Tourism
Status Assessment of Australian Wildlife Tourism, Editorial Team: • Nature Tourism Research
Dr Karen Higginbottom, Ms Kelley Rann, A/Prof Derrin Davis • Adventure Tourism Director – Prof Dick Braithwaite
2.Tourism engineering design and (dbraithw@scu.edu.au)
This report is one in a series comprising a status assessment of wildlife tourism in eco-technology research MANAGING OUR IP
Australia. It comprises the initial stages of research undertaken by the Wildlife Coordinator – Dr David Lockington General Manager – Ian Pritchard
Tourism Subprogram of the CRC. Reports in this series cover various disciplinary (d.lockington@mailbox.uq.edu.au) (ian@crctourism.com.au)
perspectives (visitors, economics, hosts, wildlife management) as well as various • Coastal and marine infrastructure and 1.IP register
subsectors (such as zoos, bird watching and hunting). Together, the reports systems 2.Technology transfer
identify the current status and key issues facing Australian wildlife tourism, and • Coastal tourism ecology 3.Commercialisation
make recommendations to enhance its sustainability. • Waste management 4.Destination management products
• Physical infrastructure, design and 5.Executive training
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data construction 6.Delivering international services
3.Tourism policy, products and 7.Spin-off companies
Green, Ronda business research • Sustainable Tourism Holdings
Coordinator – A/Prof Leo Jago CEO – Peter O’Clery
The negative effects of wildlife tourism on wildlife (Leo.jago@vu.edu.au) (poclery@interact.net.au)
• Consumers and marketing • National Centre for Tourism
Bibliography. • Events and sports tourism Managing Director – Stewart Moore
ISBN 1 876685 31 X. • Tourism economics and policy (nct@uq.net.au)
• Strategic management • Green Globe Asia Pacific
1. Ecotourism - Environmental aspects - Australia. 2. Wildlife conservation - Australia. • Regional tourism CEO – Graeme Worboys
3. Wildlife-related recreation - Australia. I. Higginbottom, Karen. II. Cooperative • Indigenous tourism (graeme.worboys@ggasiapacific.com.au )
Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. III. Title. (Series : Wildlife tourism research 4.E-travel and tourism research
report (Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism) ; no. 5). Coordinator – Dr Pramod Sharma For more information contact:
(p.sharma @mailbox.uq.edu.au ) Communications Manager – Brad Cox
338.479194 • Electronic product & destination CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd
marketing and selling Griffith University, PMB 50
© 2001 Copyright CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd • IT for travel and tourism online GOLD COASTMC, Qld 9726
All rights reserved. No parts of this report may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval development Ph: +61 7 5552 8116, Fax: +61 7 5552 8171
system or transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopying, • Rural and regional tourism online Visit: www.crctourism.com.au or email:
ctourism.com.au
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Any enquiries development Brad@cr
should be directed to CRC for Sustainable Tourism [info@crctourism.com.au]. • E-business innovation in sustainable
travel and tourism
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Aims
This report reviews the mechanisms by which wildlife tourism can
have negative effects on wildlife and the management practices that
can be used to mitigate these effects, with a focus on practices
relevant to Australia. It identifies areas of research most urgently
needed to determine the effects that may result from wildlife tourism
and related activities. It then recommends some basic guidelines for
management techniques and processes to minimise negative effects
while continuing to cater to visitor satisfaction and other needs of the
tourism industry.
Key Issues
Wildlife tourism is often considered environmentally friendly because
it is expected that those who want to see wildlife will also be
concerned with conservation and animal welfare. Further, there are
many ways in which wildlife tourism can actually make positive
contributions to conservation. However, it also has the potential to
have various negative effects on animal populations, behaviour and/or
welfare. These need to be understood if they are to be effectively
minimised. A search of local and international literature, coupled with
interviews with personnel from Australian government conservation
agencies, identified many potential and actual problems.
The negative effects of wildlife tourism and related human activities
on wildlife can be grouped into three main categories: (1) disruption
of activity, (2) direct killing or injury, and (3) habitat alteration
(including provision of food). The extent of negative impacts on
wildlife can vary enormously depending on species, life-cycle stages,
habitats and other variables.
Examples of disruption of activity include spotlighting, noisy activities,
and the approach of tourists towards animals that are foraging or
caring for their young. When a human disrupts the activities of
wildlife, the response will be either avoidance behaviour where the
wildlife will flee or hide, habituation where there is a learned lack of
i
response to humans to the point of seeming to ignore their presence,
or attraction – usually in expectation of food. The extent to which an
animal is likely to be affected by human activities will be influenced by
a number of factors. These include the amount and type of previous
contact with humans, the means of transport used by visitors, the
predictability of the human activity, the openness of habitat, the
nature of the animal’s activity and whether it has dependent
offspring. Far too little is currently known about the effects of hand-
feeding and spotlighting, and the effects of tourism activity generally
on shy cryptic species.
Death or injury can occur as the result of unintentional events such as
road accidents, or from intentional acts of hunting, fishing and
collecting. Hunting, fishing and collecting (whether by tourists or
souvenir sellers) require careful regulation formulated under advice
from wildlife ecologists familiar with the practices and the animals in
question. The unintentional trampling of wildlife (e.g. eggs of ground-
nesting birds), deliberate killing for safety reasons, (e.g. snakes), the
use of insecticides for tourist comfort, and the burning of forest
understorey for firebreaks (especially during breeding season) can also
directly cause wildlife mortality.
The most obvious occurrence of habitat alteration happens when land
is cleared or modified to make room for the infrastructure needed for
tourism activities. Changes to habitat also occur from off-road vehicle
damage and humans trampling on vegetation. Intentional and
accidental provision of food can also be seen as a form of habitat
alteration. These changes can result in significant increases or
decreases in population numbers, reduction of protection from
predators and the weather, or reduction of prey species. If one species
increases markedly in numbers, this may have negative impacts on
other species within the ecosystem. Some hand-fed animals may
become aggressive and a danger to tourists.
Determining the magnitude of impacts and deciding whether they are
positive, negative or neutral can be a difficult task. For example, what
is positive for one species may be negative or neutral for another or
the ecosystem in general. What is positive in an ecological sense may
be negative in terms of effects on species’ behaviour. The assessment
of impacts will also vary according to the goals of the human activity
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