Arjen E.J. Wals (Editor) 
                  Revised open-access edition 2014  
                                                        
              
              
              
             Full reference:  
             Wals, A.E.J., (Ed.) (1999). Environmental Education and Biodiversity. National 
             Reference Centre for Nature Management, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 108 
             p. (Revised open-access edition 2014)  
              
              
             National Reference Centre for Nature Management 
             Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries, IKC-report nr. 36 
             Wageningen 1999, ISBN 90-75789-03-3 
              
             Duplication of parts of this publication is permitted provided that proper reference 
             is made to the source.  
              
              
             Editor                     Arjen E.J. Wals (Environmental Education Research, 
                                        Agricultural Education Group, Department of Social Sci-
                                        ences, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Nether-
                                        lands) 
              
             Contributing authors       Daan van Weelie (Department of Biology Education, 
                                        Centre for Science and Mathematics Education, Utrecht 
                                        University, the Netherlands) 
                                        Amos Dreyfus (Department of Agricultural Education and 
                                        Extension, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel) 
                                        Arjen E.J. Wals (Environmental Education Research 
                                        Group, Department of Social Sciences, Wageningen Agri-
                                        cultural University, the Netherlands) 
                                        Art Alblas (Department of Biology Education, Centre for 
                                        Science and Mathematics Education, Utrecht University, 
                                        the Netherlands) 
                                        Marjan Margadant-van Arcken (Environmental Education 
                                        Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Wa-
                                        geningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands) 
              
             Cover photographs          Upper: Sarah Errington (Lineair b.v.) 
                                        Lower left: Friso van der Zee (National Reference Centre 
                                        for Nature Management) 
                                         Lower right: Ron Giling (Lineair b.v.) 
              
             Lay-out and printing       Van Eck & Oosterink, Kesteren     
              
             2   
                                                                                    
                    TABLE OF CONTENTS 
                     
                     
                    ABSTRACT                                                                                                              5 
                     
                    FOREWORD                                                                                                              7 
                     
                    1       INTRODUCTION                                                                                                  7 
                     
                    2       ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT                                                                 11 
                    2.1     Introduction                                                                                                 11 
                    2.2     Education, not training                                                                                      12 
                    2.3     Environmental education and ideology                                                                         15 
                    2.4     Components of high quality learning in environmental education                                               18 
                            2.4.1       Process anchors                                                                                  19 
                            2.4.2       Content anchors                                                                                  24 
                    2.5     Conclusions                                                                                                  28 
                     
                    3       BIODIVERSITY AS A THEME FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION                                                          30 
                    3.1     Introduction                                                                                                 30 
                    3.2     Biodiversity as a concept for environmental education                                                        31 
                    3.3     Values of biodiversity                                                                                       34 
                    3.4     Science, literacy and socio-scientific disputes                                                              36 
                    3.5     The role of scientific knowledge in socio-scientific disputes                                                38 
                    3.6     Conclusions                                                                                                  41 
                     
                    4       STEPPING STONES FOR MAKING BIODIVERSITY MEANINGFUL 
                            THROUGH EDUCATION                                                                                            43 
                    4.1     Introduction                                                                                                 43 
                    4.2     Analysing meanings                                                                                           45 
                            4.2.1       Coping with diverging meanings: a working definition of biodiversity                             45 
                            4.2.2       Biowhat?                                                                                         47 
                            4.2.3       Biodiversity?                                                                                    49 
                            4.2.4       Biotime?                                                                                         52 
                    4.3     Determining perspectives                                                                                     52 
                    4.4     Establishing learning goals                                                                                  54 
                    4.5     Developing themes                                                                                            59 
                    4.6      Contextualising biodiversity                                                                                62 
                    4.7     Valuing biodiversity                                                                                         65 
                    4.8     Examples of using the stepping stone procedure                                                               69 
                    4.9     Conclusion                                                                                                   74 
                     
                    Appendix I          Research approach and considerations underlying the stepping stone                                   
                                        procedure                                                                                        76 
                     
                    Appendix II         The Delphi questionnaires                                                                        80 
                                        Round 1                                                                                          80 
                                        Round 2                                                                                          88 
                     
                    Appendix III        Bibliography                                                                                     94 
                     
                    REFERENCES                                                                                                           99 
                     
                    ABOUT THE AUTHORS                                                                                                  106 
                     
                                                                                                                                                  3 
                                  
         
        ABSTRACT 
         
        In a research project financed by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature 
        Management and Fisheries, the Wageningen Agricultural University and the Utrecht 
        University jointly investigated the various meanings, values and uses of biodiversity 
        in order to tap its educational potential more fully. Based on interviews with 
        various experts, a literature review and a Delphi-study, a procedure was 
        constructed for developing the theme of biodiversity within environmental 
        education programmes. Despite all the confusion about biodiversity, one thing is 
        clear: there is no one single perspective or definition of biodiversity that 
        accurately describes it in all situations or contexts. Biodiversity can have different 
        meanings depending on the user and the context in which it is used. Even within 
        the scientific arena a great number of biodiversity meanings and interpretations 
        can be distinguished. It is not uncommon to find that scientific, political and 
        symbolic meanings are used interchangeably by the same person. Both the 
        knowledge base and the value base of biodiversity are variable and to a degree 
        unstable and questionable.  
         
        Although these characteristics of biodiversity can render the concept useless or 
        reduce it to a rhetorical instrument, they can also add to its strength when 
        handled with care. Certainly from an environmental education perspective, but 
        also from a policy-making perspective, these characteristics offer some worthwhile 
        advantages: 1) Biodiversity brings together different groups in society that are 
        searching for a common language to discuss nature conservation issues in relation 
        to sustainability issues. 2) This dialogue allows the socio-scientific dispute 
        character of “science-in-the-making” to surface. Participation in such a dispute is 
        an excellent opportunity to learn about a highly relevant, controversial, 
        emotionally charged and debatable topic at the crossroads of science, technology 
        and society. 3) Making such a concept meaningful to the lives of citizens requires a 
        procedure that could be utilised when developing educational programmes that 
        focus on similar topics (i.e. education for sustainability).  
         
        This book provides a justification and rationale for developing biodiversity as a 
        leading concept for environmental education for human development. Furthermore 
        it proposes a stepping stone procedure that recognises the socio-scientific dispute 
        character of biodiversity and provides a tool for turning biodiversity into a 
        meaningful and existentially relevant issue. The procedure includes the following 
        steps: analysing meanings of biodiversity, determining one or more perspectives 
        based on the general learning goals of environmental education, setting specific 
        learning objectives, selecting (sub)themes for learning, contextualising biodiversity 
        and establishing the value of biodiversity. The procedure is intended to help 
        curriculum developers, teachers, educational support staff and environmental 
        educators give specific meaning to biodiversity and to help learners critically 
        analyse the way biodiversity is used in science, technology and society. The 
        procedure is an intermediate product that offers direction in developing and 
        4